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Browse subject: plantation forestry
Number of records: 296

Relative influence of the components of timber harvest strategies on landscape pattern
About this Resource: Forest managers seek to produce healthy landscape patterns by implementing harvest strategies that are composed of multiple management components such as cutblock size, rotation length, even-aged or uneven-aged residual stand structure, conversion to plantations, and the spatial dispersion of harvest units. With use of the HARVEST model and neutral landscapes, a factorial simulation experiment was conducted to determine how each management component influenced measures of spatial pattern. There was a significant overall effect of all components on response variables defined by age class and on all but the rotation length component for response variables defined by forest type. Increasing cutblock size, rotation length, and clustering of cutblocks generally reduces measures of age class fragmentation, and increasing the use of even-aged management increases fragmentation. The response of forest type variables was consistently dominated by the component (percent plantation) that changed the abundance of a forest type. Dispersion also had a significant effect because conversions were allocated in space through the dispersion treatment. The results can be used to develop strategies to mitigate negative effects of certain silvicultural activities by showing which other components have opposite effects. Managers can better predict how specific strategy components will contribute to the cumulative landscape pattern.

Effect of Loblolly Pine Root Pruning on Alley Cropped Herbage Production and Tree Growth
About this Resource: Tillage to disrupt (prune) tree roots is an intensive practice which could improve herbage productivity at the crop-tree interface by reducing competition for water. We compared tillage effects on 9- to 11-yr-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) growth and herbage yields of annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] on a fragipan soil in Arkansas. Alley crops were rotationally grown in a 9.7-m wide alley (main plot) between bordering trees on one of three tillage treatments: control (surface tillage), rip followed by surface tillage, and trench plus root barrier followed by surface tillage. Topsoil water in May through September, herbage mass, and nutritive value were measured for each crop for 2 or 3 yr in three subplots systematically arrayed (north, middle, and south) across the alley. Diameter at breast height (DBH, measured 1.3 m above soil surface) and height of border trees were measured annually. Trenching resulted in a more uniform distribution of topsoil water among subplots compared to the other tillage treatments. Annual ryegrass yield did not show a tillage response, but pearl millet yielded more herbage in the rip (6760 kg ha-1 in 2003) and trench (3300 kg ha-1 in 2005) than the control treatment (4990 and 1260 kg ha-1 for 2003 and 2005, respectively). Ripping and trenching significantly reduced loblolly pine DBH and height compared to the control. Similarly configured alley cropping practices probably have little potential for annual herbage production even with root pruning.

Effect of press-drying on static bending properties of plantation-grown No. 2 loblolly pine lumber
About this Resource: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two press-drying treatments on the static bending properties of plantation-grown, No. 2 grade, 2 by 4 loblolly pine lumber. Specimens were divided into groups containing primarily juvenile wood or primarily mature wood. The groups were subjected to three drying method-temperature/pressure combinations: (1) kiln-drying at 116 degrees C (240 degrees), (2) press-drying at 172 or 345 kPa (25 or 50 psi), and (3) press-drying at 177 or 210 degrees C (350 or 410 degrees). Modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), work to maximum load (WML), and specific gravity (SG) were determined. The results showed no change in SG in relationship to press-dry treatment and no practical differences in both MOE and MOR between press-dried and kiln-dried specimens. The only significant change was a decrease in work to maximum load with press-drying at 345 kPa and 210 degrees C (50 psi and 410 degrees), which was detectable only in the higher quality pieces. The results suggest that loblolly pine properties are far more affected by the presence of juvenile wood and the inherent defects associated with the No. 2 grade than by press-dry treatment. Further work is needed to determine the influence of press-drying on the SG of full-size lumber. We expect that any effects will be most noticeable in higher quality pieces.

Is long primary growth associated with stem sinuosity in Douglas-fir
About this Resource: Stem sinuosity is a highly visible stem-form trait in the leaders of fast-growing Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) trees, yet its cause is unknown. We tested the hypotheses that sinuous stems have longer expanses of primary growth than nonsinuous stems (putting the leader at higher risk for curvature, induction of compression wood formation, and possibly overcorrection) and higher leader angle using 4- to 5-year-old saplings in raised beds. As hypothesized, sinuous stems had longer expanses of primary growth than did nonsinuous stems (13.5 vs. 12.3 cm, respectively). However, for the dates for which growth (length/day, primary growth, secondary growth, and total growth) differed significantly among sinuosity class, sinuosity class only explained 15%-21% of the variation in growth rate. There were no significant differences in leader angle for saplings of the three sinuosity classes. Contingency tables indicated some consistency in the category of sinuosity to which we assigned the stems in 2001 and 2002 (χ2 = 11.2, p < 0.004). When we used a more quantitative measure, the ratio of stem length/stem distance, there was a tendency toward a significant relationship between the two years (r = 0.272, p = 0.0893). These data suggest that, counter to expectation, the rate of stem growth was not a large factor in determining whether leaders become sinuous for this population of trees.

Effects of clone, silvicultural, and miticide treatments on cottonwood leafcurl mite (Acari: Eriophyidae) damage in plantation populus
About this Resource: Aculops lobuliferus (Keifer) is a little known pest of plantation Populus spp., which is capable of causing substantial damage. This is the first documented occurrence of A. lobuliferus in South Carolina. Previous anecdotal data indicated clonal variation in Populus susceptibility to A. lobuliferus damage. A damage rating scale was created to monitor mite damage in 2000-2001 in a short-rotation woody crop plantation; damage descriptions and seasonal phenology also were recorded. Foliar damage and terminal mortality were monitored on two Populus deltoides Bartr. clones, ST66 and S7C15, receiving one of three silvicultural treatments (irrigated [I], fertilized [F], or I+F) or no treatment (control). In 2001, early season foliar damage ratings were significantly higher on clone S7C15; however, damage on clone ST66 was greater after miticide treatments later in the year. Terminal mortality did not differ between clones. Silvicultural treatment significantly affected foliar damage levels in both clones. Trees receiving I+F and F treatments had higher damage ratings than did trees receiving irrigation alone or the control at times. Clone S7C15 trees receiving fertilizer had significantly less terminal mortality than their nonfertilized counterparts. Application of a commercially available miticide significantly reduced A. lobuliferus damage levels. This study demonstrates that A. lobuliferus damage levels can be influenced by Populus clone and silvicultural treatment. Foliar and terminal damage levels observed in this study indicate the potential for substantial economic impact of A. lobuliferus on plantation Populus. Although an effective control method may be to select and plant resistant Populus clones, chemical control remains a viable option.

Influence of Thinning Loblolly Pine ( Pinus taeda L.) on Hydraulic Properties of an Organic Soil
About this Resource: The impact of forest operations on soil properties has been a concern in forest management over the past 30 years. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of forest thinning operations on soil hydraulic properties of a shallow organic (Belhaven series) soil in the Tidewater region of North Carolina. Soil physical properties were evaluated in a nested design by collecting soil cores from an unthinned control and following a 40 ha fifth-row thinning with selection performed on a 14-year-old loblolly pine plantation in April 2001. Thinning decreased saturated hydraulic conductivity and drained volumes for a given water table depth; however, changes in bulk density were not detected. Saturated hydraulic conductivity determined by the constant head method before thinning was 100 cm h(-1). Thinning resulted in a 3-fold decrease (from 100 to 32 cm h(-1)) in saturated hydraulic conductivity. The thinned watershed had less drainage at low pressures and greater retained water contents under increased soil water tensions in comparison with the control. Drained volume on the thinned watershed for a water table depth of 200 cm under drained to equilibrium conditions was reduced by 60% in comparison to drained volume for the control watershed. The reductions in k(sat), drained volumes, and drainable porosity will likely result in shallower water tables and increased runoff for the thinned watershed.

Biomass removal, soil compaction, and vegetation control effects on five-year growth of Douglas-fir in coastal Washington
About this Resource: Sustainable forest production requires an understanding of the effects of site disturbance on tree growth and the consequences of soil amelioration and vegetation control practices. We assessed the impacts of biomass removals at harvest, soil compaction and tillage, and vegetation control on early growth of Douglas-fir in coastal Washington. Harvest treatments included removal of commercial bole only (BO), bole only up to 5-cm top diameter (BO5), total tree (TT), and total tree plus all legacy coarse woody debris (TTP). Vegetation control (VC) effects were tested in BO, while soil compaction (BO/SC) and compaction plus tillage (BO/SCT) were imposed in BO/VC. Five years after planting, biomass removal and soil compaction/tillage effects on tree growth were relatively small. At year 5, mean stem basal diameter in BO was greater than in TT, whereas mean height was similar in BO and BO/SC, but increased in BO/SCT. Control of competing vegetation markedly increased tree growth. At year 5, mean tree stem diameter at 1.3-m height (dbh) and height in BO/no vegetation control (NVC) were 34 mm and 308 cm, respectively, compared to 45 mm and 357 cm in BO/VC (P <0.01). Mean relative growth rate in stem diameter for trees in BO/VC was greater than in BO/NVC in years 2-4, but this trend reversed in year 5, suggesting that tree intraspecific competition may be greater in BO/VC than in BO/NVC. Vegetation control also increased second-flushing (i.e., the flushing of set buds in late summer) in years 4 and 5. Vegetation competition effects on tree growth appeared to be related to changes in available soil water rather than to competition for nutrients.

An economic analysis of hardwood fiber production on dryland irrigated sites in the US Southeast
About this Resource: Although there is renewed interest in intensively managed, short-rotation plantations as a source of hardwood for pulp mills, few have been established in the Southeast. Understanding all the costs associated with these plantations will help determine their feasibility. Using a model developed to summarize all the costs, a break-even analysis was completed to determine the delivered cost for plantations of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.) from a hypothetical fiber farm in 2003. Using current yield from an experimental fiber farm, short-rotation cottonwood plantations were not cost effective, as delivered cost to a pulp mill averaged 78$ t-1. If yield can be increased by 40% through improvements in genetics and silvicultural practices, delivered cost is reduced to 60$ t-1. Thus, finding this additional yield is key to the cost feasibility of intensively managed, short-rotation hardwood plantations.

Carbon Accounting Rules and Guidelines for the United States Forest Sector
About this Resource: The United States Climate Change Initiative includes improvements to the U.S. Department of Energy's Voluntary Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. The program includes specific accounting rules and guidelines for reporting and registering forestry activities that reduce atmospheric C(O)2 by increasing carbon sequestration or reducing emissions. In the forestry sector, there is potential for the economic value of emissions credits to provide increased income for landowners, to support rural development, to facilitate the practice of sustainable forest management, and to support restoration of ecosystems. Forestry activities with potential for achieving substantial reductions include, but are not limited to: afforestation, mine land reclamation, forest restoration, agroforestry, forest management, short-rotation biomass energy plantations, forest protection, wood production, and urban forestry. To be eligible for registration, the reported reductions must use methods and meet standards contained in the guidelines. Forestry presents some unique challenges and opportunities because of the diversity of activities, the variety of practices that can affect greenhouse gases, year-to-year variability in emissions and sequestration, the effects of activities on different forest carbon pools, and accounting for the effects of natural disturbance.

Reburn severity in managed and unmanaged vegetation in a large wildfire.
About this Resource: Debate over the influence of postwildfire management on future fire severity is occurring in the absence of empirical studies. We used satellite data, government agency records, and aerial photography to examine a forest landscape in southwest Oregon that burned in 1987 and then was subject, in part, to salvage-logging and conifer planting before it reburned during the 2002 Biscuit Fire. Areas that burned severely in 1987 tended to reburn at high severity in 2002, after controlling for the influence of several topographical and biophysical covariates. Areas unaffected by the initial fire tended to burn at the lowest severities in 2002. Areas that were salvage-logged and planted after the initial fire burned more severely than comparable unmanaged areas, suggesting that fuel conditions in conifer plantations can increase fire severity despite removal of large woody fuels.

Potential for areawide integrated management of Mediterranean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) with a braconid parasitoid and a novel bait spray.
About this Resource: The braconid wasp, Fopius arisanus (Sonan), a biological control agent for Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was studied in coffee, Coffea arabica L. Fopius arisanus, comprised 79.3% of the total parasitoids (7,014) recovered from fruits collected at three small coffee farms. Data from seasonal host/parasitoid studies at a large coffee plantation also suggested that the most effective natural enemy of C. capitata in coffee may now reside in Hawaii. The original parasitoids introduced into Hawaii for C. capitata control (Diachasmimorpha tryoni (Cameron), Tetrastichus giffardianus Silvestri, and Dirhinus giffardii Silvestri) are now rare. Abundance of F. arisanus with respect to other parasitoids collected was influenced by elevation (274, 457, 610 m). Fopius arisanus was the dominant parasitoid at all three elevations, Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) occurred consistently, and T. giffardianus was abundant only at low elevation. The impacts on C. capitata and F. arisanus populations of bait sprays containing malathion, spinosad, or phloxine B applied to coffee were also evaluated. All three bait sprays suppressed C. capitata populations. Spinosad and phloxine B bait sprays appeared less harmful to the wasp than malathion. Fopius arisanus offers the potential for areawide management of C. capitata that includes biological control and integration with more environmentally safe chemical controls such as spinosad and phloxine B bait sprays.

Fine root dynamics in a loblolly pine forest are influenced by free-air-CO₂-enrichment: a six-year-minirhizotron study
About this Resource: Efforts to characterize carbon (C) cycling among atmosphere, forest canopy, and soil C pools are hindered by poorly quantified fine root dynamics. We characterized the influence of free-air-CO₂-enrichment (ambient +200 ppm) on fine roots for a period of 6 years (Autumn 1998 through Autumn 2004) in an 18-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantation near Durham, NC, USA using minirhizotrons. Root production and mortality were synchronous processes that peaked most years during spring and early summer. Seasonality of fine root production and mortality was not influenced by atmospheric CO₂ availability. Averaged over all 6 years of the study, CO₂ enrichment increased average fine root standing crop (+23%), annual root length production (+25%), and annual root length mortality (+36%). Larger increase in mortality compared with production with CO₂ enrichment is explained by shorter average fine root lifespans in elevated plots (500 days) compared with controls (574 days). The effects of CO₂-enrichment on fine root proliferation tended to shift from shallow (0-15 cm) to deeper soil depths (15-30) with increasing duration of the study. Diameters of fine roots were initially increased by CO₂-enrichment but this effect diminished over time. Averaged over 6 years, annual fine root NPP was estimated to be 163 g dw m⁻² yr⁻¹ in CO₂-enriched plots and 130 g dw m⁻² yr⁻¹ in control plots (P= 0.13) corresponding to an average annual additional input of fine root biomass to soil of 33 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ in CO₂-enriched plots. A lack of consistent CO₂x year effects suggest that the positive effects of CO₂ enrichment on fine root growth persisted 6 years following minirhizotron tube installation (8 years following initiation of the CO₂ fumigation). Although CO₂-enrichment contributed to extra flow of C into soil in this experiment, the magnitude of the effect was small suggesting only modest potential for fine root processes to directly contribute to soil C storage in south-eastern pine forests.

Effect of Plantation Density on Kraft Pulp Production from Red Pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.)
About this Resource: Red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) butt logs from 38 year old research plots were used to study the effect of plantation stand density on kraft pulp production. Results indicate that plantation stand density can affect pulp yield, unrefined pulp mean fibre length, and the response of pulp fibre length to pulp refining. However, the effect of plantation stand density on physical and optical properties of paper was not significant and within the measurement errors of data obtained from testing handsheets. Therefore, we conclude that pulp and paper properties should not be a factor affecting forest management for the plantation density range studied.

Responses of native and invasive plant species to selective logging in an Acacia koa-Metrosideros polymorpha forest in Hawai'i
About this Resource: Questions: Is the introduced timber species Fraxinus uhdei invasive in Hawai'i? Has logging disturbance facilitated the spread of Fraxinus and other alien species? Location: Windward Mauna Kea, island of Hawai'i. Methods: We surveyed 29 plots which were established before selective logging of the native tree Acacia koa in 1971 to determine if Fraxinus spread beyond the borders of an existing plantation and if other alien species increased. We created gaps in the canopy of the Fraxinus plantation and measured seed rain and regeneration, and we sampled foliar and soil nutrients inside and around the plantation. Results: Basal area of Fraxinus increased from 0.7 m2.ha-1in 1971 to 10.8 m2.ha-1 in 2000. Fraxinus was not found in plots that were located more than 500 m from those where it occurred in 1971 except along a road. Basal area of Acacia koa decreased after logging but subsequently recovered. Occurrence of the alien vine Passiflora tarminiana and alien grass Ehrharta stipoides decreased. Seedling regeneration of Fraxinus was prolific in gaps but did not occur under the canopy. Basal area of Fraxinus did not correlate with soil nutrient concentrations. Conclusions: Fraxinus was able to regenerate following logging more rapidly than native tree species. Basal area growth of Fraxinus was great enough to offset a decline in native trees and cause an increase in forest productivity. If the Fraxinus plantation is harvested, managers should plan ways of favoring regeneration of the native Acacia which is more valuable both for timber and for conservation.

Sycamore and sweetgum plantation productivity on former agricultural land in South Carolina
About this Resource: Former agricultural lands in the southern US comprise a significant land base to support short rotation woody crop (SRWC) plantations. This study presents the seven-year response of productivity and biomass allocation in operational-scale, first rotation sycamore (Plantanus occidentalis L.) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) plantations that were established on drained Ultisols which were historically planted in cotton and soybeans. Three plantation systems, sycamore open drainage, sycamore plus water management, and sweetgum open drainage were established on replicate 3.5-5.5 ha catchments. Height, diameter, and mortality were measured annually. Allometric equations, based on three, five, and seven year-old trees, were used to estimate aboveground biomass. Below-ground biomass was measured in year-five. Water management did not affect sycamore productivity, probably a result of a 5 year drought. The sycamore plantations were more productive after seven growing seasons than the sweetgum. Sycamore were twice the height (11.6 vs. 5.5 m); fifty percent larger in diameter (10.9 vs. 7.0 cm); and accrued more than twice the biomass (38-42 vs. 17 Mg ha-1) of the sweetgum. Sweetgum plantation productivity was constrained by localized areas of high mortality (up to 88%) and vegetative competition. Mean annual height increment has not culminated for either species. Diameter growth slowed in the sycamore during growing seasons five through seven, but was still increasing in the sweetgum. Both species had similar partitioning of above-ground (60% of total) and below-ground biomass (40% of total).

Fertilization but not irrigation influences hydraulic traits in plantation-grown loblolly pine
About this Resource: The goal of the study was to explore hydraulic traits in a 4-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation to better understand plasticity of this species to resource availability. The influence of a factorial combination of irrigation (130mmyear⁻¹ versus 494mmyear⁻¹) and fertilization (0kgNha⁻¹ year⁻¹ versus 80kgNha⁻¹ year⁻¹) on stand-level transpiration, canopy stomatal conductance (G S), sapwood area to leaf area ratio (A S:A L), root area to leaf area ratio (A R:A L), and leaf specific hydraulic conductance (G L) was examined. The study site was located on the Savannah River Site near Aiken, SC. Transpiration was measured continuously over 11 months using thermal dissipation probes. Transpiration per unit ground area summed over the 11 months increased from 223 to 420mm with fertilization, and transpiration per unit leaf area also increased with fertilization, suggesting increased growth efficiency. Fertilization increased A S:A L, G L, G S and leaf water potential but had no effect on A R:A L. Less aboveground woody biomass allocation to branches or greater growth efficiency may account for higher A S:A L in fertilized trees. Irrigation had no influence on hydraulic traits and the influence of fertilization on hydraulic traits was independent of irrigation. Fertilization increased growth whereas irrigation had little effect on growth and fertilization effects. These results indicate that hydraulic traits of loblolly pine are sensitive to nitrogen availability.

Ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) species, flight, and attack on living eastern cottonwood trees.
About this Resource: In spring 2002, ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infested an intensively managed 22-ha tree plantation on the upper coastal plain of South Carolina. Nearly 3,500 scolytids representing 28 species were captured in ethanol-baited traps from 18 June 2002 to 18 April 2004. More than 88% of total captures were exotic species. Five species Dryoxylon onoharaensum (Murayama), Euwallacea validus (Eichhoff), Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus (Zimmermann), Xyleborus atratus Eichhoff, and Xyleborus impressus Eichhoff) were collected in South Carolina for the first time. Of four tree species in the plantation, eastern cottonwood, Populus deltoides Bartram, was the only one attacked, with nearly 40% of the trees sustaining ambrosia beetle damage. Clone ST66 sustained more damage than clone S7C15. ST66 trees receiving fertilization were attacked more frequently than trees receiving irrigation, irrigation + fertilization, or controls, although the number of S7C15 trees attacked did not differ among treatments. The study location is near major shipping ports; our results demonstrate the necessity for intensive monitoring programs to determine the arrival, spread, ecology, and impact of exotic scolytids.

Hypersensitivity of Ranunculus asiaticus to Salinity and Alkaline pH in Irrigation Water in Sand Cultures.
About this Resource: Ranunculus, grown as a field crop in southern and central coastal California, is highly valued in the cut flower and tuberous root markets. However, concerns regarding the sustainability of ranunculus cultivation have arisen when the plantations are irrigated with waters of marginal quality because the viability of the tuberous roots may be compromised. A study was initiated to evaluate the effect of saline irrigation waters, with and without pH control, on the growth of plants and tuberous roots of ranunculus. Treatments consisted of four irrigation water solutions with increasing concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, SO42-, and Cl- to meet an electrical conductivity (EC) of 2, 3, 4, and 6 dS·m-1 and pH 6.4. The 3, 4, and 6 dS·m-1 solutions were replicated with uncontrolled pH, which averaged 7.8 over the trial. Ranunculus 'Yellow ASD' and 'Pink CTD' seedlings were transplanted into greenhouse sand tanks and irrigated twice daily with treatment solutions. Shoot dry weight of plants irrigated with 2 dS·m-1 solutions was 7.20 g and 6.66 g in 'Yellow ASD' and 'Pink CTD', respectively; however, increasing EC from 2 to 3 dS·m-1 induced an 83% and 78% decrease, respectively. Tuberous root fresh weight of control plants, 7.45 g and 8.42 g for 'Yellow ASD' and 'Pink CDT', respectively, was decreased by 82% and 89% when EC was 6 dS·m-1. High pH of irrigation water caused an additional decrease in shoot dry weight and tuberous root weight. In control plants, 83% and 76% of tuberous roots of 'Yellow ASD' and 'Pink CTD', respectively, that were transplanted in the following season produced new shoots; however, tuberous roots sprouting percentage from plants irrigated with EC 4 dS·m-1 water decreased to 42.9% and 58.3% and to 11.1% and 45.0% with EC 6 dS·m-1. The hypersensitivity of ranunculus to salinity was associated with a significant decrease in Ca2+ and K+ tissue concentration. In 'Yellow ASD', Ca2+ decreased from 202 mmol·kg-1 in control plants to 130 mmol·kg-1 in plants irrigated with 3 dS·m-1 solutions and pH 6.4. In 'Pink CTD', the decrease was from 198 mmol·kg-1 to 166 mmol·kg-1. Potassium was similarly affected. Compared with control plants (405 mmol·kg-1), shoot Na+ concentration was increased by 101% in 'Yellow ASD' and by 125% in 'Pink CTD' when irrigated with 6 dS·m-1 water. Salt sensitivity of ranunculus, as determined by growth of the flowering stems and viability of the tuberous roots, was increased by irrigation with alkaline waters, which was associated with additional increases in Na+ and Cl- tissue concentration and decreased iron accumulation. Hypersensitivity to salinity makes ranunculus crop a poor candidate for water reuse systems; however, further research is warranted to elucidate the possibility of enhancing its tolerance to salinity by supplemental Ca2+ and K+ and acidification of irrigation water.

Predicting the potential distribution of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), a significant exotic pest of Pinus plantations
About this Resource: The potential distribution of sirex wood wasp (Sirex noctilio) in Australia, South America and Africa (where the insect is known to occur and is spreading) and North America and China (where sirex has not established) was assessed from a study of the insect's current distribution and host range. Sirex noctilio has a wide host range, mainly in Pinus, including many important commercial species planted as exotics in the Southern Hemisphere as well as native stands in North America. Using the climate-matching program CLIMEX the potential distribution range of S. noctilio was predicted across the globe based on climatic conditions in Eurasia and northern Africa, where the insect is endemic. Sirex noctilio is predicted to establish in the majority of commercial Pinus plantations in Australia. Many countries with commercial Pinus plantations in South America (Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Paraguay) as well as South Africa are predicted to be colonised by S. noctilio by natural migration. Countries that are a long distance from S. noctilio-infested areas, such as Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and plantations in southern Chile, western Australia and north-western Brazil, are only likely to be colonised by S. noctilio via human-assisted transport of infested wood. Sirex noctilio was predicted to be able to persist in many areas in North America. In China, S. noctilio is predicted to be able to persist in many areas where large-scale afforestation of susceptible hosts has occurred and is planned. However, S. noctilio is endemic in neighbouring countries of China, indicating that something other than climate and host is restricting S. noctilio establishing in China, or that it has not been detected yet. The Sirex Management Strategy will help reduce the spread and impact of S. noctilio.

Impacts of Fertilizer Additions on Water Quality of a Drained Pine Plantation in North Carolina. A Worst Case Scenario
About this Resource: Intensive plantation forestry will be increasingly important in the next 50 years to meet the high demand for domestic wood in the US. However, forestry management practices can substantially influence downstream water quality and ecology. In this study, the effect of fertilization on drainage water quality of a coastal pine plantation located in Carteret County, NC was studied. The pine plantation consists of three watersheds, two mature (31-year old) and a young (8-year old) stands (age at treatment). One of the mature stands was commercially thinned in 2002. The unthinned mature stand was designated as a control and was not fertilized. The two other stands (young and thinned) were fertilized with diammonium phosphate, urea, and boron. Each treatment watershed received a different fertilizer rate. Both the flow rates and nutrient concentrations in water drained from each of the watersheds were measured. Nutrient concentrations and nutrient loadings were analyzed using a paired watershed approach and GLM statistical procedures. Three large storm events occurred soon after fertilization, a 5-year 24 hr, a 1 to 2-year, and a third event (46 mm in 46 hr) occurred six, 29 and 47 days after fertilization respectively. It was determined that peak nutrient concentrations soon after fertilization were much higher than the average concentrations, which were significantly (α = 0.05) higher on both treatment watersheds soon after fertilization than during any other period during the study. The effect of fertilization on both the nutrient concentrations and loading rates was short lived and the levels were back to pre-fertilization levels as soon as three months after fertilization. Also, the average nutrient increase on the thinned stand was higher than on the young stand as a result of a higher fertilizer rate applied on the thinned stand one.

Nitrogen Balance for a Plantation Forest Drainage Canal on the North Carolina Coastal Plain.
About this Resource: Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle has led to increased riverine nitrogen loads, contributing to the eutrophication of lakes, streams, estuaries, and near-coastal oceans. These riverine nitrogen loads are usually less than the total nitrogen inputs to the system, indicating nitrogen removal during transport through the drainage network. A two-year monitoring study quantified the ammonium, nitrate, and organic-N inputs, outputs, and inferred in-stream processes responsible for nitrogen transformations and removal in a 1900 m reach of a drainage canal located in a managed pine plantation. Total nitrogen inputs to the canal section were 527.8 kg in 2001 and 1422.7 kg in 2002. Total nitrogen discharge at the outlet was 502 kg in 2001 and 1458 kg in 2002. The mass balance of nitrogen inputs and outputs indicated a loss of 25.8 kg (5.1%) of total nitrogen from the system in 2001, and a gain of 35.3 kg (2.4%) of total nitrogen to the system in 2002. Variability in the input and output estimates was high, especially for groundwater exchange. Different hydrologic and nitrogen inputs and outputs were identified and quantified, but measurement variability obscured any potential nitrogen removal from the system.

Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change and advance food security
About this Resource: World soils have been a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide since the dawn of settled agriculture, which began about 10 millennia ago. Most agricultural soils have lost 30% to 75% of their antecedent soil organic carbon (SOC) pool or 30 to 40 t C ha-1. The magnitude of loss is often more in soils prone to accelerated erosion and other degradative processes. On a global scale, CO2-C emissions since 1850 are estimated at 270 +/- 30 giga ton (billion ton or Gt) from fossil fuel combustion compared with 78 +/- 12 Gt from soils. Consequently, the SOC pool in agricultural soils is much lower than their potential capacity. Furthermore, depletion of the SOC pool also leads to degradation in soil quality and declining agronomic/biomass productivity. Therefore, conversion to restorative land uses (e.g., afforestation, improved pastures) and adoption of recommended management practices (RMP) can enhance SOC and improve soil quality. Important RMP for enhancing SOC include conservation tillage, mulch farming, cover crops, integrated nutrient management including use of manure and compost, and agroforestry. Restoration of degraded/desertified soils and ecosystems is an important strategy. The rate of SOC sequestration, ranging from 100 to 1000 kg ha-1 year-1, depends on climate, soil type, and site-specific management. Total potential of SOC sequestration in the United States of 144 to 432 Mt year-1 (288 Mt year-1) comprises 45 to 98 Mt in cropland, 13 to 70 Mt in grazing land, and 25 to 102 Mt in forestland. The global potential of SOC sequestration is estimated at 0.6 to 1.2 Gt C year-1, comprising 0.4 to 0.8 Gt C year-1 through adoption of RMP on cropland (1350 Mha), and 0.01 to 0.03 Gt C year-1 on irrigated soils (275 Mha), and 0.01 to 0.3 Gt C year-1 through improvements of rangelands and grasslands (3700 Mha). In addition, there is a large potential of C sequestration in biomass in forest plantations, short rotation woody perennials, and so on. The attendant improvement in soil quality with increase in SOC pool size has a strong positive impact on agronomic productivity and world food security. An increase in the SOC pool within the root zone by 1 t C ha-1 year-1 can enhance food production in developing countries by 30 to 50 Mt year-1 including 24 to 40 Mt year-1 of cereal and legumes, and 6 to 10 Mt year-1 of roots and tubers. Despite the enormous challenge of SOC sequestration, especially in regions of warm and arid climates and predominantly resource-poor farmers, it is a truly a win-win strategy. While improving ecosystem services and ensuring sustainable use of soil resources, SOC sequestration also mitigates global warming by offsetting fossil fuel emissions and improving water quality by reducing nonpoint source pollution.

Forest site preparation effects on soil and nutrient losses in east Texas
About this Resource: Site preparation practices are frequently utilized in Southern pine ecosystems to facilitate planting and seedling establishment. Soil and nutrient losses were monitored in 12 bordered erosion plots following four site preparation treatments in a clearcut harvested loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) forest in east Texas. Three replications of four site preparation treatments were used: (1) chemical herbicide followed by prescribed fire and mechanical tillage, (2) chemical herbicide followed by prescribed fire, (3) chemical herbicide only, and (4) unprepared control. Annual soil loss from the mechanical tillage and prescribed fire treatments (1273 kg ha(-1) and 885 kg ha(-1), respectively) was significantly greater than annual soil loss from the chemical herbicide and control treatments (240 kg ha(-1) and 219 kg ha(-1), respectively). During the first post-treatment year, sediment concentration and overland flow increased significantly in the mechanical tillage and prescribed fire treatments with respect to control. Nutrient (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S) concentrations and losses in sediment and overland flow temporarily increased after the mechanical tillage and prescribed fire treatments, but not after the chemical herbicide and control treatments. Nutrient concentrations and losses for all site preparation treatments were relatively small and should have little or no effects on water quality and long-term site productivity.

Microbial community responses in forest mineral soil to compaction, organic matter removal, and vegetation control
About this Resource: We tested three disturbance hypotheses in young conifer plantations: H1: soil compaction and removal of surface organic matter produces sustained changes in microbial community size, activity, and structure in mineral soil; H2: microbial community characteristics in mineral soil are linked to the recovery of plant diversity; and H3: community responses are strongly modified by regional climate. Microbial biomass, respiration, carbon utilization, and phospholipid fatty acids were compared at two subtropical installations and one Mediterranean-type climate installation of the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity study. Treatments included combinations of compaction (none vs. severe), organic matter removal (none vs. complete), and weed control (none vs. complete), plus an uncut reference stand. Weed control resulted in the only consistent decline or shift in microbial indices at the subtropical sites. At the Mediterranean-type climate site, overstory harvesting resulted in declines in microbial biomass, respiration, and fungal phospholipid fatty acids that far outweighed the effects of the soil disturbance treatments. Severe compaction had no effect on community size or activity at any site. Microbial communities were generally tolerant of postharvest soil disturbance, leading to a rejection of the experimental hypotheses, with the exception of a link between microorganisms and recovery of plant diversity (H2) at the subtropical sites.

Pheromone-based disruption of Eucosma sonomana and Rhyacionia zozana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) using aerially applied microencapsulated pheromone
About this Resource: Two aerial applications of microencapsulated pheromone were conducted on five 20.2 ha plots to disrupt western pine shoot borer (Eucosma sonomana Kearfott) and ponderosa pine tip moth (Rhyacionia zozana (Kearfott); Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) orientation to pheromones and oviposition in ponderosa pine plantations in 2002 and 2004. The first application was made at 29.6 g active ingredient (AI)/ha, and the second at 59.3 g AI/ha. Baited sentinel traps were used to assess disruption of orientation by both moth species toward pheromones, and E. sonomana infestation levels were tallied from 2001 to 2004. Treatments disrupted orientation by both species for several weeks, with the first lasting 35 days and the second for 75 days. Both applications reduced infestation by E. sonomana, but the lower application rate provided greater absolute reduction, perhaps because prior infestation levels were higher in 2002 than in 2004. Infestations in treated plots were reduced by two-thirds in both years, suggesting that while increasing the application rate may prolong disruption, it may not provide greater proportional efficacy in terms of tree protection. The incidence of infestations even in plots with complete disruption suggests that treatments missed some early emerging females or that mated females immigrated into treated plots; thus operational testing should be timed earlier in the season and should comprise much larger plots. In both years, moths emerged earlier than reported previously, indicating that disruption programs should account for warmer climates in timing of applications. The AIs we tested are behaviorally active for 13 other species of Rhyacionia and six other species of Eucosma, so the approach may have wide application.

[Two men stand in sugar cane field, Mexico]
About this Resource: Frank and Frances Carpenter Collection (Library of Congress)

New records of neusticomys oyapocki (rodentia, sigmodontinae) from a human-dominated forest landscape in northeastern Brazilian amazonia
About this Resource: Here we report three new specimens of Neusticomys oypocki from northeastern Brazilian Amazonia collected in a plantation forestry landscape. These represent one third of all known N. oyapocki specimens and extend the distribution of the species ca. 360 km southwards. All specimens were captured with pitfall traps, which reinforce the importance of this method for comprehensive small mammal inventories. Moreover, captures occurred during the dry season in primary, secondary, or plantation forests, suggesting that species of Neusticomys may be more opportunistic habitat generalists than previously thought.

Determinants of Forestry Investment and Extent of Forestry Expansion by Smallholders in New Zealand
About this Resource: While there has been a large increase in investment in plantation forestry in New Zealand by smallholders during the past decade, there are still many smallholders who have chosen not to become involved in this land use or who are using only a portion of their potentially planted land for forestry. To understand why this is the case, this paper studies two issues, the differences between those who have and have not established plantation forests, and the factors that explain the proportion of land used in forestry by small landholders who have identified that they have potentially plantable land. Land used for forest plantations is treated as a two-step decision process, where first a landowner must decide whether they would consider planting trees at all and then secondly how much land would be planted in trees. With this approach, a double hurdle model is used to study planting decisions. Using survey data obtained from 344 landholders in four South Island districts, the results indicate that property-specific factors, such as property size, years of ownership, and ownership being part of a partnership, as well as landowner characteristics such as perceptions of tax policies being favourable for forestry, off farm income level and expectations of increasing log prices were correlated with the decision whether to establish a plantation forest. The factors determining the extent of land identified as being potentially profitable in forestry actually being used for plantation forestry include forestry tax policy, expectations of increasing log prices, regional location of a property, owner’s annual income, and area used in sheep and beef production.

Burley tobacco is placed on sticks to wilt after cutting ... on the Russell Spears' farm, vicinity of Lexington, Ky.
About this Resource: Title continues: ... before it is taken into the barn for drying and curing.

Burley tobacco is placed on sticks to wilt after cutting ... on the Russell Spears' farm, vicinity of Lexington, Ky.
About this Resource: Title continues: ... before it is taken into the barn for drying and curing.

Field of Burley tobacco on farm of Russell Spears ... vicinity of Lexington, Ky.
About this Resource: Title continues: ... drying and curing barn in the background.

Burley tobacco is placed on sticks to wilt after cutting ... on the Russell Spears' farm, vicinity of Lexington, Ky.
About this Resource: Title continues: ... before it is taken into the barn for drying and curing.

Forestry and the aquatic environment: studies in an Irish context
About this Resource: Research on the interaction between plantation forestry and aquatic environments is essential to develop environmentally compatible and sustainable management further. Given, in Ireland, the generally low levels of atmospheric pollution, its geology and maritime climate, and the unique fauna and flora due to its island history, such studies are important not only in the regional context, but also internationally, as they provide an opportunity to examine the effect of forestry and forest management practices on aquatic systems per se, without the complications of acidification. Here, some of the major findings of forestry and water research in Ireland have been reviewed and compared with those from the UK and elsewhere. Plantation forests do not exacerbate acidification in the south of Ireland (Munster) as a whole so that the influence of forestry on water chemistry is far less important than in other parts of the country (such as Wicklow and Mayo). The main forestry influence on streams in Munster is more likely through physical factors, but their nature is unclear. In a few catchments some negative effects are evident, but in many others apparently positive forest effects occur. In this context, smaller scale catchment-level effects appear to be more important in explaining the various relationships between plantation forests and stream ecology than larger scale regional factors. The management of riparian zones, particularly in forested catchments, is of major importance for the structure and functioning of aquatic communities and further work is needed on best management practices. It is suggested that it is unreasonable to base forest management on national Forest-Fisheries guidelines since regions vary too much and the signal from local conditions is too strong. The approach for environmentally benign, scientifically sound forestry management has to be at the catchment scale. Trees in the right places may be beneficial ecologically but further work is needed to identify these locations. The introduction of new forest management practices such as adoption of new species mixes and continuous forest cover are at an early stage in Ireland and their influence on aquatic systems is unknown. Keywords: forest-stream interactions, Irish plantation forestry, hydrochemistry, macroinvertebrates, salmonids, forest management

Dynamics of river sediments in forested headwater streams: Plynlimon
About this Resource: Long term studies of fluvial sediment processes in the Plynlimon catchments have contributed to the assessment and quantification of plantation forestry impacts in British upland catchments, at all stages of the forest cycle. The results from the Plynlimon studies are placed in the context of the observed impacts of particular forest practices and studies of forestry effects on sediment transport elsewhere in the world. The effects associated with drain excavation, ploughing, track construction, ground and channel disruption are outlined for both bedload and, particularly, for suspended load. Finally, recent data on sediment yields from 1995 to 1997 at Plynlimon are reported and discussed in the light of longer-term sediment yield estimates. This paper also provides background information relevant to other sediment process studies which use data from the main Plynlimon sediment monitoring network.

[Brazil. Rubber plantations. ca. 1925.]
About this Resource: Workers carrying pails of latex to collection depot. Ford plantation, Belterra.

Riparian forestry management and adult stream insects
About this Resource: The impacts of coniferous plantation forestry on the biology of upland streams in the UK are firmly established. Whilst benthic communities have been well studied, very little research has considered the impacts of riparian forestry management on adult stream insects, yet the essentially terrestrial adult (reproductive) phase may be important in determining the abundance and distribution of larval stages. Riparian vegetation has a potentially strong impact on survival and success of adult stages through alteration of microclimate, habitat structure and potential food sources, in addition to effects carried over from larval stages. Here, current riparian management strategies are analysed in the light of available information on the ecology of adult stream insects. On the whole, management practices appear to favour adult stream insects, although an increase in tree cover in riparian areas could be beneficial, by providing more favourable microclimatic conditions for adults. This conclusion is drawn based on rather limited information, and the need for further research into the effects of riparian forestry management on adult stream insects is highlighted. Keywords: microclimate, plantation, life history, riparian vegetation

Major, minor and trace element composition of cloudwater and rainwater at Plynlimon
About this Resource: The composition of cloudwater samples collected at Plynlimon, Mid Wales by the Institute of Hydrology is described based on one of the most comprehensive chemical records for deposition in the UK. Comparison with bulk rainwater samples for the same area demonstrates a tenfold enrichment of most elements in cloudwater. Large variations in cloudwater composition occur due to variations in marine and terrestrial/anthropogenic sources, general weather patterns, atmospheric circulation and seasonal effects. All trace metal concentrations are associated with anthropogenic contamination. The lanthanides La, Cc and Pr, and Y are highly correlated in ratios associated with lithogenic sources and fossil fuel combustion. Outliers suggest the influence of catalysts used in the petrochemical cracking process. Plantation forestry significantly enhances the annual deposition of solutes from cloudwater; between 15 and 40% of most constituents to upland forested catchments and around 50% for NO3, B and Cd come from cloud deposition. In upland moorland areas, only 10% of the annual deposited load of inorganic constituents comes from cloudwater.

Development of the tree and shrub component and recovery techniques in a burnt pine forest, Castel Fusano, Rome
About this Resource: A five-year study (2000-2005) was established in a part of Castel Fusano (Rome) pinewood burned in 2000. The aims of the research were: i) to analyse the behaviour of the coenoses after fire; ii) to verify the post-fire growth and canopy recovery of the Mediterranean maquis; iii) to evaluate natural regeneration of italian stone pine (Pinus pinea L.); iv) to verify the effectiveness of italian stone pine plantation in enhancing the establishment of the forest cover. Permanent research plots were established to evaluate features and dynamics of the Mediterranean maquis as well as mortality and development of 1-year-old italian stone pine (ca.500 ha-1) seedlings. Two different plantation systems were applied: blocks of three seedlings at 8x8 m distance; one seedling at 5x5 m distance. After five growing seasons from the fire, only 700 stools ha-1 have resprouted, mainly holm oak (48%), whose only 38% of good vigour. Canopy cover of the broad-leaved species is not enough to assure a quick forest establishment. Combined pine plantation with the maquis species, has given satisfactory results, though the mortality was quite high because of the game damages. The block planting performed better for growth and survival of seedlings. This last plantation system could be a rational choice to assure, in a relative short time, forest recovery and mixed stands characterised by a considerable presence of natural vegetation.

Potential for Carbon Forest Plantations in Marginal Timber Forests: The Case of Patagonia, Argentina
About this Resource: With the advent of the Kyoto Protocol and its recognition of the use of forestry activities and carbon sinks as acceptable tools for addressing the issue of the build-up of atmospheric carbon, the potential role of planted forests as a vehicle for carbon sequestration has taken on a new significance. Additionally, the emergence of tradable emission permits and now tradable carbon offsets provides a vehicle for financially capturing the benefits of carbon emission reductions and carbon offsetting activities. In a world where carbon sequestration has monetary value, investments in planted forests can be made with an eye to revenues to (at least two) joint outputs: timber and the carbon sequestration services. The first section of this paper examines the Patagonia region of Argentina, as an example of an area where carbon sequestration values combined with timber values create financial incentives for creating planted forests, which could not be justified on the bases of timber values alone. The paper uses a present value approach to evaluate the costs and benefits of plantation forestry in a "representative" site in Patagonia. A basic timber harvest scenario is developed and then a number of alternative scenarios are examined. These introduce carbon as an additional product to be produced "jointly" with timber. The scenarios include alternative rotation periods, alternative prices for carbon offsets, and a brief examination of the effect of undertaking a specific silvicultural activity. In the second section of the paper the results of this analysis are considered in the context of a discussion of the various types of institutional arrangements that might be required to provide a market for the carbon sequestration services provided by the planted forests. The paper identifies, examines and discusses a number of potential institutional arrangements that exist or are under discussion for marketing carbon sequestration services. A number of problems that may arise with offset credits and some of the innovative institutions that may be created are identified and discussed.

Poplar Growing and Farm Adjustment on the North Coast of New South Wales
About this Resource: The poplar species, Populus deltoides provides types which are ecologically well suited to the rich alluvial soils of the north coast. This study uses a simple simulation model and linear programming to explore the economics of introducing poplars into farm plans on this soil type. If the price of poplar timber does not fall by more than 60 per cent relative to other agricultural prices, and if plantations can be financed at discount rates less than 10 per cent, then poplar growing has considerable scope for integration with other farm activities. Poplars should be included under all the farm conditions tested, namely farm sizes between 100 and 150 acres, labour forces between one and three men per farm and a doubling of dairy profitability over the present level.

NATURE AND EXTENT OF PROBLEMS OF AGRO-GRAZIERS IN BHAWALPUR DISTRICT, PAKISTAN
About this Resource: Studies on nature and extent of problems faced by agro-graziers were carried out in Bhawalpur district of Southern Punjab, Pakistan during 1991. Non cooperative attitude of government departments and farmers for not allowing agro-graziers to graze their animals along canals, forests, rangelands, irrigated plantations and agricultural fields was a very common problem. Due to poverty, agro-graziers were unable to purchase costly concentrates and cultivated fodders to feed their animals. They could not buy veterinary medicines to cure their animals against different diseases. Moreover, no loan subsidy, financial assistance or credit was granted by the Government for the alleviation of poverty of agro-graziers. In addition, 30 and 35% agro-graziers in the district faced problems of shortage or non availability of forage and water, respectively.

Thomas Jefferson Center for Historical Plants
About this Resource: Home page link for the Monticello website. Monticello is owned and operated by the Thomas Jefferson Foundation and the wbsite describes the Foundations' work, offering insights its' various projects and ongoing programs. The Monticello plantation totals over five thousand acres devoted to flower and fruit gardens, as well as vegetables. Visitors can plan for a visit to Monticello where a great deal can be learned about Thomas Jefferson and the research and education conducted by the Foundation. The website also generates reports and research tools and elaborates upon fellowships, conferences, and special initiatives.

[Coffee hacienda, Costa Rica]
About this Resource: Showing coffee beans in rows drying in sun.

DOES INCLUSION OF LANDOWNERS' NON-MARKET VALUES LOWER COSTS OF CREATING CARBON FOREST SINKS?
About this Resource: This research examines effects of various factors on farmer participation in agricultural tree plantations for economic, environmental, social and carbon-uptake purposes. Using data from a survey of Canadian agricultural landowners, a discrete choice random utility model is used to determine the probability of farmers' participation and corresponding mean willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for a tree-planting program. WTA includes positive and negative nonmarket benefits to landowners from planting trees. Estimates of WTA are less than foregone agricultural rents, but average costs of creating carbon credits still exceed their projected value under a CO2-emissions trading sche

Cycling of nutrient base cations in a twelve year old Sitka spruce plantation in upland mid-Wales
About this Resource: The effects of the early growth of plantation forestry on the biogeochemical cycling of potassium, calcium and magnesium have been investigated in a stand of 12 year old Sitka spruce and adjacent moorland growing on acid peaty podzol soils in mid Wales. Element budgets have been calculated for both systems using measurements of soil and vegetation base cation pools and fluxes. In the moorland, the magnesium budget is approximately at steady-state with no net change to the soil store whilst the soil is accumulating potassium. The calcium budget is approximately balanced but contains significant uncertainties due to between plot variability in calcium leaching losses. Afforestation has greatly increased the above-ground living biomass which holds 7 to 15 times more nutrients compared to the living aerial biomass in the moorland. With the exception of magnesium, the base cation stores within the forest soil are being depleted as the increase in atmospheric deposition due to the forest canopy provides only a small offset to the much larger accumulation of base cations within the trees. The current net rate of change in the soil store of calcium is sustainable for only 65 years. However, as the trees mature, their demand for calcium will be reduced and they should be able to ‘tap' deeper sources of calcium in the soil profile as well as in the drift and regolith material. Keywords: Forestry, base cations, element cycling, calcium, magnesium, potassium

Aspectos sociais do fomento florestal no Estado do Espírito Santo
About this Resource: This study was developed using information obtained from 71 farm owners, who were responsible for 92 contracts ofsubsidized forest plantation in the Espírito Santo State. The contracts were distributed in five areas, according to the place of deliveringwood. The objective was to survey social aspects of the farms and the farm owners with subsidized forest plantations in the State. Thesample of contracts represented about 88% of the total contracts finalized between October 2004 and October 2005, and it wasstratified by area. Differences were verified among the five areas, in relation to the farms, farm owners and contracts. Farms rangedbetween 7.5 and 3000 ha, and 40.9% of them had between 100 and 300 ha. The subsidized forest plantations ranged between 1.5 and100 ha, and 84.8% of them had up to 30 ha. Coffee plantation was the main productive activity of the farms, and 73.2% of the farmowners declared themselves as a farmer regarding to their main occupation.

PP HARVST
About this Resource: Software that simulates the cost of harvesting operations in ponderosa pine plantations for partial cutting or clear cutting for three types of equipment configurations: a cut-to-length harvester-forwarder system, a whole tree/log length skidder system, and a skyline cable system.

PLANTATION EVALUATION IN INDONESIA: A CLASSIFICATION TEMPLATE AND ANALYSIS OF PROFITABILITY
About this Resource: The purposes of this study were to develop a template to reduce errors and time needed to classify plantations in Indonesia; and to analyze the correlation between the profit of the firm and plantation performance level. This study uses dBase IV to develop the descriptive classification template and quantitative statistics (Discriminant Analysis) to evaluate the relationship between a firm's/classification and profits. Data used were obtained from the Directorate General of Estate Crops, ~Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture in 1992. The study found that processing the plantation classification data using the template increases data processing accuracy and is about 9 time faster than when classification is done manually. The study also found that several factors influence the profitability of the firm. The variable, knowledge of the leader, makes the highest share contribution to a firm's profit. Finally, this study recommends that the Directorate General of Estate Crops should review the weights currently assigned to variable in determining the plantation performance and use the template for processing the classification data in order to reduce data processing bias and the time required to classify plantations.

SURVEY OF SOIL MICRO-ARTHROPODS IN SELECTED SITES IN OGUN STATE
About this Resource: A survey of the soil fauna of selected farm locations in Ogun State was conducted. The study was carried out at the school farm of the University of Agriculture, Alabata, Abeokuta; the School garden of the Baptist Girls` College, Idi-Aba, Abeokuta; a Farmland at Ewekoro, the Rubber plantation, Ikenne. All sites are in Ogun State. Microarthropods encountered during the survey of the sites considered belong to Class Arachnida, order Acarina, Suborders Oribatida, x = 36.50; Actinedida x = 1.00 and Gamasida; x = 2.25 and class insecta, order Collembola, x = 0.75. The rubber plantation was found to have the highest population of all these Microarthropods x = 24.75 while the school farm of the University of Agriculture, Abeokuta recorded the least population containing species of Suborder Oribatida x = 1.75 only. The school garden of Baptist Girls` College, Idi-Aba, Abeokuta x = 11.75 and the Farmland at the Cement Factory area, Ewekoro x = 3.75. The result of the physico-chemical analysis of the soil conducted indicated the influence of soil properties on the distribution of these microarthropods, also, different farm practices.

Low Emission Farming Systems: A whole-farm analysis of the potential impacts of greenhouse policy
About this Resource: The Australian government is introducing a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme in 2010, as part of its climate change policy. After 2015 agriculture may be covered by this scheme. This paper examines how different broadacre farming systems may be affected by the policy settings of this scheme. Using the bio-economic farming systems model MIDAS (Model of an Integrated Dryland Agricultural System) the impacts of the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme on the profitability of different broadacre farming systems in the southwest of Australia are investigated. Results show a range of profit and enterprise impacts across the various farm types. In a scenario where agriculture is not covered by the scheme, reductions in profit range from 7 to 12 percent, attributable to more expensive ‘covered’ inputs such as fuel and fertiliser; and farmers reduce their use of expensive energy inputs such as chemicals and fertilisers. In a covered scenario profits decline by 15 to 25 percent of ‘business-as-usual’ profit and optimal farm plans involve a combination of reduced livestock numbers, the introduction of permanent woody perennial plantations on marginal lands and other changes to the farm enterprise mix to reduce emissions.